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The Harvard Family Research Project separated from the Harvard Graduate School of Education to become the Global Family Research Project as of January 1, 2017. It is no longer affiliated with Harvard University.

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Research Description

Overview and Components The Yale Study of Children’s After-School Time involves a 4-year longitudinal investigation of a representative sample of children who attended Grades 1–3 in Fall 2002. During the 2002–2003 school year, 37% of the sample participated in an after school program (ASP) that was part of a northeast city’s citywide after school initiative in the public school district. The remainder of sample had alternative after school arrangements including care from parents and other adults and self/sibling care. The study’s main goal is to understand how the variety of after school care arrangements these children experience relate to their overall development and well being over time.
Start Date Fall 2002 (ongoing, with anticipated completion in March 2007)
Scope local
Type after school
Location urban
Setting public school
Participants elementary school students (Grades 1–6)
Number of Sites/Grantees 9 ASPs in 3 public schools at baseline (Fall 2002) and 25 ASPs in 37 public schools at the most recent follow-up (Fall 2006)
Number Served The study involves 651 children enrolled in Grades 1–3 at one of 3 public schools in 2002—2003 (year 1).
Study Details The 3 schools were selected partly because they were located in geographically distinct areas and were among the most disadvantaged in the city (e.g., over 95% of students at these schools were eligible for free or reduced lunch in the 2002–2003 school year). All of the ASPs at these schools received support from a 21st Century Community Learning Centers grant and from local, state, and federal sources, as well as modest enrollment fees based on family income. All the ASPs had been operating for at least 5 years prior to the beginning of the study.

The ASPs’ goals are to provide a safe and supportive environment after school and to promote youth’s academic and social competence, and physical health. The ASPs are carried out within public schools between 3 p.m. and 6 p.m., with activities conducted separately by grade. Each ASP includes time for a snack, homework, enrichment learning (e.g., musical instruments, computers), supervised recreation (e.g., basketball, board games), and art. The majority of participants live in poverty and represent traditionally defined minority groups.
Funding Level The study’s funding totaled $1,086,623 (direct and indirect costs).
Funding Sources The study is supported by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and the Smith Richardson Foundation.
Researchers Joseph L. Mahoney, Heather Lord, and Maria E. Parente, Department of Psychology, Yale University

Erica Carryl, Department of Applied Psychology, New York University
Research Profiled An Ecological Analysis of After School Program Participation and the Development of Academic Performance and Motivational Attributes for Disadvantaged Children

Afterschool Program Participation and the Development of Child Obesity and Peer Acceptance

Afterschool Program Engagement: Links to Child Competence and Program Quality and Content
Research Planned Forthcoming reports include:

Lord, H., & Mahoney, J. L. (acceptance pending). Neighborhood crime and self care: Risks for aggression and lower academic performance. Developmental Psychology.

Lord, H. (2006). Examining afterschool programs and self care as moderators in the association between neighborhood risk and children’s academic performance and aggression. Unpublished dissertation, Yale University.
Report Availability Mahoney, J. L., Lord, H, & Carryl, E. (2005). An ecological analysis of after-school program participation and the development of academic performance and motivational attributes for disadvantaged children. Child Development, 76(4), 811–825.

Mahoney, J. L., Lord, H, & Carryl, E. (2005). Afterschool program participation and the development of child obesity and peer acceptance. Applied Developmental Science, 9(4), 202–215. Available at www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s1532480xads0904_3.

Mahoney, J. L., Parente, M. E., & Lord H. (in press). Afterschool program engagement: Links to child competence and program quality and content. The Elementary School Journal.


Contacts

Research Joseph L. Mahoney, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Department of Psychology
Yale University
P.O. Box 208205
New Haven, CT 06520
Tel: 203-432-7904
Fax: 203-432-7172
Email: joseph.mahoney@yale.edu
Profile Updated November 15, 2006

Research Study 1: An Ecological Analysis of After School Program Participation and the Development of Academic Performance and Motivational Attributes for Disadvantaged Children


Research Description

Research Purpose To study ASP participation and the development of academic performance and related motivational attributes in a sample of disadvantaged children.
Research Design Quasi-Experimental: In Fall 2002, 818 first through third graders at 3 public schools were invited to participate in the study. Of these, 599 received parental consent to participate (73%). The sample was balanced by gender (49% female) and was racially/ethnically diverse (50% Hispanic, 36% Black, 10% White, 2% Asian, and 2% other). The sample diversity was substantially similar to the total population of students served by the participating schools. During the 2002–2003 school year, the vast majority of fourth graders at these schools failed to meet state minimal proficiency requirements in reading, writing, and math. The sample’s median annual household income, including all forms of public assistance and compensation, was $16,794 for an average family size of 4.4 persons. The poverty status of the sample was as follows: 22% extremely poor (below 50% of the poverty threshold), 35% poor (50–100% of the threshold), 27% near poor (100–175% of the threshold), and 16% nonpoor (above 175% of the threshold).

Data were obtained for all 599 children in the research sample as follows: pretest parent survey/interview, pretest/posttest classroom teacher and ASP staff survey, and posttest academic measures (school grades and reading achievement). Response rates for each ranged from 83% to 99%.

The analysis strategy involved four steps. First, researchers identified patterns of after school care arrangements based on parents’ reports of the number of hours between 3 p.m. and 6 p.m. in a typical school week that their child was involved in four types of care arrangements: ASP, parent/guardian, nonadult (e.g., self, sibling), and other adult (e.g., babysitters, relatives, adult friends). Analysis revealed four patterns of care arrangements: ASP care (children who attended ASPs nearly every day and were also in parent care for a portion of time on some days), parent care (children who were primarily in parent care each day), parent/nonadult care (children who regularly had a mix of parent/nonadult care each day), and other adult/nonadult care (children with a mix of other adult/nonadult care across the week). Second, patterns were evaluated with respect to potential selection influences: poverty status and caregiver employment, race/ethnicity, and grade and gender. Third, patterns were evaluated for differences in spring academic performance and supporting motivational attributes as measured by the teacher survey, adjusting for fall academic functioning and selection influences. Finally, patterns involving regular ASP participation were subdivided based on whether ASP staff rated a child as above (high engagement) or at/below (low engagement) the sample median for engagement in ASP activities. Academic performance and motivational attributes were compared between subgroups and care patterns.
Data Collection Methods Interviews/Focus Groups: Parents who were unable or unwilling to complete the written survey were offered the opportunity to be interviewed; 7 parents chose an interview.

Secondary Source/Data Review: Daily ASP attendance records were collected across the year.

Children’s grades in reading, math, writing, language, social studies, and science were collected from school academic records and coded separately on a scale of 1 (unsatisfactory or failing) to 4 (excellent or ‘A’). Subject grades were summed and averaged to create an overall grades measure.

Surveys/Questionnaires: Parent surveys asked about their children’s after school care arrangements and family demographics.

ASP staff surveys included a 10-item scale about each child’s engagement (enjoyment, effort, and interest) in five academic and five nonacademic/recreational program activities. Responses were rated on a scale ranging from 1 (very untrue of the child) to 5 (very much true of the child). Fall and spring engagement were summed and averaged to derive each child’s overall engagement level across the school year.

Classroom teacher surveys asked teachers to assess their students using several scales of motivation and competence in the fall (baseline) and spring (follow-up).

Test/Assessments: The Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA) was used to measure children’s reading achievement (Beaver, 1997). The DRA assesses reading comprehension and fluency through a series of progressively challenging stories based on accuracy in reading aloud, retelling, and answering questions about the stories.

The classroom teacher survey included four child assessments from two measures: (a) the EZ-Yale Personality Questionnaire’s (Zigler, Bennett-Gates, & Hodapp, 1999) scales of expectancy of success (the degree to which one expects to succeed or fail on a new task) and effectance motivation ¬(the intrinsic pleasure derived from solving difficult problems) and (b) the Interpersonal Competence Scale’s (ICS; Cairns, Leung, Gest, & Cairns, 1995) academic competence scales of ‘‘good at spelling’’ and ‘‘good at math.” All items were rated on a scale of 1 (very much untrue of the child) to 5 (very much true of the child).

References:
Beaver, J. (1997). Developmental reading assessment. Glenville, IL: Celebration Press.

Cairns, R. B., Leung, M-C., Gest, S. D., & Cairns, B. D. (1995). A brief method for assessing social development: Structure, reliability, stability, and developmental validity of the interpersonal competence scale. Behaviour Research and Therapy Incorporating Behavioural Assessment, 33, 725–736.

Zigler, E., Bennett-Gates, D., & Hodapp, R. (1999). Assessing personality traits of individuals with mental retardations. In E. Zigler & D. Bennett-Gates (Eds.), Personality development in individuals with mental retardation (pp. 206–225). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Data Collection Timeframe Data were collected during the 2002–2003 school year; pretest data were collected in the fall and posttest data were collected in the spring.


Findings:
Formative/Process Findings

Recruitment/Participation Analyses found that children in the ASP care pattern subgroup were significantly more likely to be in second or third grade, have a primary caregiver who was employed, and experience less marked poverty than those in the other care patterns (p < .05).


Summative/Outcome Findings

Academic Children in ASP care had significantly higher reading achievement than those in other care arrangements (p < .05). Children in ASP care also had significantly higher expectancy of success than those in other adult/nonadult care (p < .05).

Children in the high-ASP-engagement subgroup had significantly higher expectancy of success and reading achievement than those in all other care arrangements (p < .05).

Effectance motivation of children in the high-ASP-engagement subgroup was significantly higher than for those in the low-ASP-engagement subgroup and in other adult/nonadult care (p < .05).

The reading achievement of children in the low-ASP-engagement subgroup was significantly higher than those in other adult/nonadult care (p < .05).

Expectancy of success for children in the low-ASP-engagement subgroup did not differ significantly from those in other arrangements.

Effectance motivation of children in the low-ASP-engagement subgroup was significantly lower than that of children in parent care (p < .05).

Research Study 2: Afterschool Program Participation and the Development of Child Obesity and Peer Acceptance


Research Description

Research Purpose To examine the role of ASP participation in children’s development of body mass index (BMI), obesity status, and indicators of peer acceptance over time.
Research Design Quasi-Experimental: In fall 2002, 818 first through third graders at three public schools were invited to participate in the study. Of these, 599 received parental consent to participate (73%). The sample was balanced by gender (49% female) and was racially/ethnically diverse (50% Hispanic, 36% Black, 10% White, 2% Asian, and 2% other). The sample diversity was substantially similar to the total population of students served by the participating schools. During the 2002–2003 school year, the vast majority of fourth graders at these schools failed to meet state minimal proficiency requirements in reading, writing, and math. The sample’s median annual household income, including all forms of public assistance and compensation, was $16,794 for an average family size of 4.4 persons. The poverty status of the sample was as follows: 22% extremely poor (below 50% of the poverty threshold), 35% poor (50–100% of the threshold), 27% near poor (100–175% of the threshold), and 16% nonpoor (above 175% of the threshold).

Of the 599 youth in the research sample, 439 (210 girls, 229 boys) had baseline BMI data and thus constituted the study sample. All children who remained in the school district were tracked. This study sample did not significantly differ from the overall research sample on any study variable. Across the study, the attrition rate was 3% (n = 15); 13 children relocated to schools outside of the district and 2 withdrew from the study. The intact and attrition sample did not significantly differ on any study variable.

Four assessment waves were conducted over 2 years: wave 1 (fall 2002), wave 2 (spring 2003), wave 3 (fall 2003), and wave 4 (spring 2004). Surveys were completed by parents (waves 1 and 3), fourth graders (wave 3), and classroom teachers (waves 1–4). BMI measures were taken an average of 2 years prior to the study’s start (baseline), and again in wave 3, an average of 3.2 years later. Overall, 75% of the sample had complete data from all sources. Teacher-rated popularity at wave 1 was significantly lower for participants missing follow-up BMI data than those who were not (p < .001). Wave 1 popularity was also lower for those missing any data on teacher-rated popularity across waves 1–4 than those who were not (p < .001).

At baseline, 22% of children were clinically obese at baseline and 29% at follow-up. BMI and obesity status showed significant stability over time (p < .01 and p < .001, respectively); 73% of those obese at baseline were also obese at follow-up. Children who were obese at baseline were rated by teachers as significantly less popular (p < .01) and received significantly more peer nominations for rejection (p < .01) and isolation (p <. 05) than nonobese children. Baseline BMI of children from near poor families was significantly higher than those from extremely poor or poor families (p < .05). Baseline BMI and obesity did not significantly differ by race/ethnicity.
Data Collection Methods Interviews/Focus Groups: Parents who were unable or unwilling to complete the written survey were offered the opportunity to be interviewed; 7 parents chose an interview.

Secondary Source/Data Review: ASP participation was measured using daily attendance records. Continuous participation was determined by trichomotizing yearly attendance data as no attendance (57% in year 1, 63% in year 2), sporadic attendance (average of 1–2 days per week; 21% in year 1, 20% in year 2), and regular attendance (average of 3 or more days per week; 22% in year 1, 17% in years 2). These data were summed to provide a 5-point participation continuum ranging from 0 (no attendance in either year) to 4 (regular attendance for both years). Categorical participation was defined as no attendance/sporadic attendance in both years or regular attendance for at least 1 year.

BMI was computed with the Centers for Disease Control formula using children’s height and weight measurements taken from medical exam records at baseline and using a stadiometer (height) and digital scale (weight) at follow-up. Clinical obesity was defined as a BMI equal to or above the 95th percentile based on age and gender.

Surveys/Questionnaires: Parent surveys asked about children’s after school care arrangements and family demographics.

The fourth grader survey asked about peer relationships in the classroom based on a procedure developed by Cairns and colleagues (Cairns & Cairns, 1994; Cairns, Cairns, Neckerman, Gest, & Gariepy, 1988). Children were asked to identify classmates “that you don’t want to hang around” (rejection) and “that don’t have a group and stay by themselves most of the time” (isolation). To assess the degree to which children were viewed by classmates as belonging to a peer group, children were also asked to identify classmates who “hang around together a lot” during the school day and after school.

Teacher surveys asked about the popularity of participating students in their classrooms.

Tests/Assessments: Teacher surveys incorporated the Interpersonal Competence Scale’s Popularity factor (ICS; Cairns, Leung, Gest, & Cairns, 1995) which involves 3 items: popular with boys, popular with girls, and lots of friends. Items were modified to use a 5-point (vs. 7-point) scale of 1 (very untrue of the child) to 5 (very much true of the child).

References:
Cairns, R. B., & Cairns, B. D. (1994). Lifelines and risks: Pathways of youth in our time. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Cairns, R. B., Cairns, B. D., Neckerman, H. J., Gest, S.,& Gariepy, J. L. (1988). Social networks and aggressive behavior: Peer support or peer rejection? Developmental Psychology, 24, 815–823.

Cairns, R. B., Leung, M-C., Gest, S. D., & Cairns, B. D. (1995). A brief method for assessing social development: Structure, reliability, stability, and developmental validity of the interpersonal competence scale. Behaviour Research and Therapy Incorporating Behavioural Assessment, 33, 725–736.
Data Collection Timeframe Data were collected fall 2002 through spring 2004.


Findings:
Formative/Process Findings

Recruitment/Participation African American children had greater ASP participation than Hispanic children (p < .05). Differences between African American and European American children were not significant. Poverty status was not significantly related to ASP participation.

The prevalence of obesity at baseline (age 5) did not differ significantly for those children subsequently classified as ASP participants and nonparticipants (18% vs. 22%).


Summative/Outcome Findings

Prevention Controlling for baseline obesity, poverty, and race/ethnicity, follow-up obesity prevalence was significantly lower for ASP participants than nonparticipants (21% vs. 33%, p < .05).

Greater ASP participation was significantly associated with lower BMI at follow-up after controlling for baseline BMI and demographic factors (p < .05).
Youth Development Over time, regular ASP participants became more popular than those who were not, although these differences were significant in waves 3 and 4 only (p < .05). The higher popularity was observed for both obese and nonobese ASP participants.

Nominations for belonging to a peer group after school were significantly higher for ASP participants than nonparticipants (p < .01). Nominations for belonging to a classroom peer group, peer rejection, and isolation did not significantly differ by participation.

ASP participants (both obese and nonobese) received significantly few peer nominations for rejection (p < .01) or isolation (p < .05) than nonparticipants. By contrast, peer nominations for isolation and rejection were pronounced for obese nonparticipants.

Research Study 3: Afterschool Program Engagement: Links to School Competence and Program Quality and Content


Research Description

Research Purpose To examine ASP engagement levels (e.g., whether youth appear engaged, focused, and interested in activities) in relation to child competencies, program quality, and program content. Child competencies examined include: (a) effectance motivation (the intrinsic pleasure derived from solving difficult problems); (b) social competence (youth’s aggression and popularity); and (c) school grades. Program quality refers to supportive relations with adults and peers, opportunities for cognitive growth (e.g., activity requires youth to plan, synthesize ideas, or use information to accomplish a goal or make a decision), appropriate structure (e.g., activity instructions are clear and appropriate), chaos (e.g., youth are out of control), and mastery orientation (e.g., activities challenge youth in developmentally appropriate ways without being so difficult that they discourage participation). ASP content was examined in three areas: non-skill building, homework, and enrichment.
Research Design Quasi-Experimental: Across the 2002–2003 school year, 870 first through third graders at 3 public schools were invited to participate in the study. Of these, 651 received parental consent to participate (75%). The sample was balanced by gender (48% female) and was racially/ethnically diverse (45% Hispanic, 34% Black, and 21% other). The poverty status of the sample was as follows: 14% extremely poor (below 50% of the poverty threshold), 42% poor (50–100% of the threshold), 34% near poor (100–175% of the threshold), and 11% nonpoor (above 175% of the threshold).

The subsample for this study includes all study participants enrolled in an ASP during the spring of year 2 (n = 141), at which time data on ASP engagement, quality, and content were collected. Compared to the overall sample, the subsample attended an ASP for more days during year 1 (p < .001) and was more likely to be African American than Hispanic (p < .01). In year 2: girls (vs. boys, p < .05), Hispanics (vs. African Americans, p < .05), and first graders (vs. third graders, p < .01) attended ASPs observed to be significantly higher in engagement than their peers. These variables were controlled for in the analyses.

Classroom teachers completed fall and spring surveys in year 1 and 2. In the spring of year 2, participating ASPs were observed. Analyses assessed whether year 2 ASP participation was selective (e.g., youth who were more competent in year 1 were more apt to participate in more engaging ASPs in year 2). Researchers also evaluated whether year 2 engagement levels were positively related to effectance motivation, social competence, and school grades, using models that accounted for youth’s nesting in ASPs and schools. Further, associations were examined between ASP engagement, process quality, and content.
Data Collection Methods Document Review: On the observation day, each ASP site provided a written copy of their weekly schedule, which described the programs’ activity plans separately by grade in 30-minute blocks of time.

Observation: Observations were conducted during a typical day at each ASP. To examine content, the number of minutes spent observed in each content area (non-skill building, homework, and enrichment) was recorded.

Secondary Source/Data Review: ASP attendance was determined for all 141 subsample participants based on daily attendance records collected by ASP staff.

Children’s grades in reading, math, writing, language, social studies, and science were collected from school academic records and coded separately on a scale of 1 (unsatisfactory or failing) to 4 (excellent or ‘‘A’’). Subject grades were summed and averaged to create an overall grades measure. Each participant’s school and grade attended was collected from school records.

Surveys/Questionnaires: School day classroom teacher surveys asked about the participating students’ social and academic competence in the classroom.

Test/Assessments: Program engagement and quality were recorded during observations using the Promising Practices Rating System (Vandell et al., 2004), modified to use a 7-point rather than a 4-point scale and reflecting the extent to which each of the rated constructs was characteristic of the ASP (i.e., 1 = highly uncharacteristic to 7 = highly characteristic).

The classroom teacher survey included child assessments from two measures: (a) the EZ-Yale Personality Questionnaire’s (Zigler, Bennett-Gates, & Hodapp, 1999) effectance motivation ¬scale and (b) the Interpersonal Competence Scale’s (ICS; Cairns, Leung, Gest, & Cairns, 1995) social competence scale, which involves items related to aggression (gets into trouble, gets into fights, argues) and popularity (popular with boys/girls, lots of friends). All items were rated on a scale of 1 (very much untrue of the child) to 5 (very much true of the child).

References:
Cairns, R. B., Leung, M. C., Gest, S. D., & Cairns, B. D. (1995). A brief method for assessing social development: Structure, reliability, stability, and developmental validity of the interpersonal competence scale. Behaviour Research and Therapy Incorporating Behavioural Assessment, 33, 725–736.

Vandell, D. L., Reisner, E. R., Brown, B. B., Pierce, K. M., Dadisman, E. M. (2004). The study of promising after-school programs: Descriptive report of the promising programs. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Center for Education Research, University of Wisconsin–Madison.

Zigler, E., Bennett-Gates, D., & Hodapp, R. (1999). Assessing personality traits of individuals with mental retardations. In E. Zigler & D. Bennett-Gates (Eds.), Personality development in individuals with mental retardation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Data Collection Timeframe Data were collected during year 1 (2002–2003) and year 2 (2003–2004) of the study.


Findings:
Formative/Process Findings

Activity Implementation With respect to process quality, the ASPs were relatively high in terms of organization and social climate and moderate with respect to a focus on skill building.

The proportion of time spent in the three content areas was similar for both observations and ASP schedules. ASPs scheduled less time for non-skill-building activities and more time for enrichment than was observed, but these differences were not significant.
Recruitment/Participation The average number of ASP days attended by the subsample was 66 in year 1 and 106 in year 2. The greater number of year 2 days attended reflects the fact that the subsample included only those sample youth who were enrolled in an ASP during the spring of year 2 regardless of whether they were enrolled in year 1, so some of these youth may not have been enrolled in an ASP in year 1.

ASP engagement was higher in programs with greater levels of: program structure (p < .01), supportive relationships with peers and adults (p < .05), cognitive growth opportunities (p < .01), and observed time spent on enrichment (p < .05). Relationships between engagement and the other variables assessed (chaos, mastery orientation, time spent on non-skill building and homework) were not significant.


Summative/Outcome Findings

Youth Development Attending a more engaging ASP was significantly associated with higher effectance motivation (p <. 05) and social competence (p < .01), controlling for prior competence and demographic variables. Engagement levels were not related to school grades.

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